By-Trilochan Gautam
This article (essay) will debate on whether global population is becoming culturally homogeneous in their pattern of consumption of tourism and hospitality products. Therefore it will comprise of two parts: the first for the motion and the second against; how cultural heterogeneity has advanced and diverse consumption pattern is demanded instead. The evidence on these contrasting processes and how the industry has responded to such phenomena via its products will be explored.
In so doing, hospitality industry will be focussed, in partial conjunction with tourism, since they correlate as stated by Knowles et al. (2001), that both hospitality and tourism refer to a complex mixture of products - food, drink and accommodation. While briefly defining the key terms, different historical phases and theories of cultural and economic significance will be analysed in face of Modernism and Post-modernism consecutively, leading to a suggestive conclusion.
At defining key terms, ‘hospitality’ according to Knowles et al. (2001) is provisions of accommodation and food service while consumer stays away from home. Likewise, ‘tourism’ is a collection of activities, services and industries which deliver a travel experience comprising transportation, accommodation, eating and drinking establishments, retail shops, entertainment businesses and other hospitality services provided for individuals or groups traveling away from home". ‘Culture’ is defined as the way of life; a combination of customs, language, beliefs, knowledge and skills, and values and norms of people in a society (Anon. 2008). ‘Homogenisation’ as integrity here refers to a distinctive form of social engineering generated by social movements and behavioral changes resulting to people being ethnically and culturally congruent (Conversi 2008).
Following the post-second war stability, world prosperity began to grow signifying the modernity. As soon as post-war reconstruction commenced the Golden Age of Fordism, characterized by Henry Ford’s knowledge-based labour management, took effect. Manufacturing efficiency and better wages both contributed to mass production and consumption amass leading to some sort of homogeneity. As a result, prosperity grew in the USA which gradually spread far across national borders. Such shared value rapidly upgraded the working class to middle class with better affordability (Casteel 2009). Furthermore, this economic brilliancy was backed by ‘Japanisation’ as automation which established political and economic conditions nationally and internationally, affecting the technology transfer pace in 1950s/‘60s, which played a dominant role in intensifying the marketing of produced goods via the media (Alan 2007).
In this very background, ccountries developed branded hospitality services targeting mass consumption as demanded in national level (Casteel 2009). In the UK, for instance, Butlins, Wimpy and Trust House Forte were established. Such markets grew largely for national consumption thereby, inducing cultural homogenisation at national level. Consequently employment in hospitality sector accounted over 50% of total in prominent economies. In other nations including the UK, the output in this sector crossed 60% whereas USA led by far the Western Europe. In the 1960s the UK measured nearly 53% of total output which rose to 66% by the 1990s (Cullen 1997). Meanwhile, Japan’s protectionist approach in private industry sector had nurtured in favourable growth environment during the ‘Golden Age’ of capitalism between 1950 and 1974 (Dunning 2001). To this token, encouraging consumers to ‘want more than they actually needed’ had been crucial to the use of mass media, particularly in food, beverage and fashion according to Guinness (2003).
However, the modern capitalism faced crisis from early 1970s mainly due to oil crisis in 1974. This led to economic depression in America and other pro-Western countries, thereafter prompting ‘Group of 77’ developing nations to seek for ‘new international economic order’ in association with UN (Dunning 2001). Wage payment became intricate and the epidemic of job scarcity led to cheap labour seeking to move around the globe thanks to advancing travel provisions. In 1974, the UK Pay Board published a report on the problems of pay differential indicative of the shifting of a phase from rigid to flexible labour management (Dougherty 1976). Such circumstances further intensified the concept of ‘globalisation’, where limitations of geography on economic, social and cultural aspects fade away and people become increasingly aware that they are retreating, as mentioned by Guinness (2003). Guinness further elaborates, particularly in hospitality sector this was additionally achieved by McDonaldisation, reflective of mass hospitality product and behavioural similarity of consumers.
As observed, globalisation resulted to cultural homogenisation since according to Needle (2004), in terms of lifestyle and core values, cultures around the world move more closely together. Collectivism superseded individualism in that traditional societies had modernised. Further Faulkner et al. (2001:1) state, “Increasing cross-cultural contacts can bring issues of cultural sustainability to the fore”. Increasing international movements of goods, people, services, information and funds had been highly experienced in the last quarter of twentieth century. Cross-fertilisation of culture had been a simultaneous vice verse to the advancement of hospitality industry. The advantageous tourism in 1960s is cited as the ‘noblest instrument’ of the century effecting to global cultural harmony by complementing to the concept of ‘global village’ (Hunziker 1987, cited by Faulkner et al. 2001). Re-shrinking of distances and media systems had affected social values and pattern of consumptions as backed by Knowles et al. (2001) that whatever occurs in one country either in receiving or generating, influences the others. Further, increased global travel and international networking of media and communication provisions, contributed to realize ‘cultural supermarket’ effect that is collectivity of homogeneous lifestyle in consumerism terms (Hall 1992 cited by Mulcock 2001).
As evidenced so far, global cultural homogenisation contributed well towards ‘global village’, consequently on the other hand however, leaving national cultures detached from tradition. According to Smith (1998 cited by Cohen and Rai 2000), the globalisation versus identity conflict and the globality of ICTs have caused to threaten to erode the customs that facilitate protect traditional culture and social values and relevant esoteric information. Furthermore such instances are reflective while cultural selfhood of global cities like London, New York and Tokyo has been fading away, detached from their respective nations since economy and culture flow alongside (Guinness 2003).
In response to globalisation and cultural homogenisation, hospitality industry has adjusted to cope with the rising competitive advantage urged by each wave of global forces according to Knowles et al. (2001). Products are made at global basis to achieve greater economies of scale and branding of products further, and standardisation at the global level is now required. Signifying the growth of multinational hospitality firms Guinness (2003:81) states, “There are now few parts of the world where the direct or indirect influence of TNCs in not important”. Hospitality systems further expanded and standardised thanks to advancement of communication systems influencing global consumption and advertising. In addition, growing use of computers and global distribution system (GDS) for airline industry by 1960s has brought revolution in information system, and such technologies were significantly instrumental to global distribution of hospitality in terms of branding, enchaining and harmonising of businesses (Faulkner et al. 2001).
Relevant to hospitality industry the influential McDonaldisation theory implies in uniformity of production-consumption en mass. In this effect, everybody wants to consume globally available brands and products which has been characterised by the establishment of Holiday Inn hotels, the Accor Group, Ryan Air, Disney, Pizza Hut, McDonald’s and Club Mediterranean operated as TNCs and MNCs. Such brands in an effort to attract voluminous customers have homogenized their products to the basic commonality offering a standardised experience to the consumers as Cohen-Hattab and Kerber (2004) analogically mention.
There exists, however, a sharply contrasting argument suggesting that cultural heterogeneity is gaining strength as Mandel (2009:4) states, “There are numerous cultural groups which continue to live atmosphere each other and maintain their own unique cultural identities”.
Cultural pluralism as a notion that within large society, cultural groups maintain their own unique identities has been evident at places like India with distinctive caste system. In South Africa, distinct cultures exist for centuries including the Zulu, the Xhosa and the Ndebele (Mandel 2009). In addition, new hybrid identities and resistance to globalisation are in rise. This hybridisation, synonymous to marginalisation, is resultant when cultural and psychological loss occurs mainly among non-dominant populations at their exclusion from full participation in the extended society, Mandel adds. Lowenthal (1993) (cited by Faulkner et al. 2001) further argue millions of common people are now searching for their roots, mobilising to protect their vital heritage of their concern. Hence uniform consumption system is criticised as a simplistic and cultural heterogeneity exists amid increasing cultural hybridisation (Anon. 2008).
This phenomenon is well signified by growing non-class based political practices, individual identities and new social movements and communities such as young and ethnic groups, feminists and gays. Passive masses or a homogenised consumption culture is no longer in demand as Faulkner et al. (2001) argue that the organised mass tour model lacks meaningful human contact where significant shifts in attitudes cannot be expected to occur. This not only indicates the reluctance and passivity towards the mass concept in hospitality, but also an increasing individualistic consumption, insightful for niche concept. Following the developing trend of individualism and cultural fragmentation, as evidenced, the emergence of knowledge-based ‘post-modernity’ promotes anti-global concept of consumption. Also, given the fact that consumer is less predictable, more flexible, experienced, educated and thoughtful, the mass consumption is declining characterised by more quality conscious individual consumer, promoted by advanced technologies that maximise value rather than volume (Knowles et al. 2001).
Last but not least, changing socio-demography has drawn people apart to the blocks of ageing population, youths, ethnics and sports further mention Faulkner et al. Hence it is for certain that the lifestyle choices within an increasingly globalised culture have increased and population have grown more discriminating and demanding.
Since post-modern hyper-reality and recreation complicates the anatomy of consumer behaviour, it has been essential to establish effective Customer Relationship Marketing (CRM) exploring beyond psycho-demographic boundaries (Anon. 2004). Consumers’ demand on authenticity has risen which is evidenced by the argument Faulkner et al. (2001) make that, although customers are always not capable of recognising ‘pseudo-events’ as a fake, they are increasingly seeking out for an authenticity.
Acknowledging the importance of CRM has been as vital as offering a hospitality product, thus, for instances, The Model Village at Godshill (England) and the Sukanen Ship Museum (Canada) are operative representing particular histories, events and identities (Cohen-Hattab and Kerber 2004).
Therefore in the face of individualistic post-modernism, as observed above, the hospitality industry has concentrated on branding to reach individually tailored niche products focusing diverse consumption patterns. Microtel Inns and Suites, for instance, have developed a specialty among American families with dwarfs calling them ‘Little People’, who account over 1 million of population. As a result, their hotels in Bushnell, Marianna, Palm Coast and Zephyrhills stood best perforV mers in terms of occupancy and revenue (Stone 2007). Further, religious groups seek hetero-global consumption as the Arab population does (Harrison 2004). Therefore, hotels have had to seek for adaptability, exemplified by Marriott seeking for locations in Korea, Indonesia and Thailand which increased its regional room capacity from 3,700 to 21,000 in just over a year’s period in 1998/99 with its extension to new establishments Ritz-Carlton’s, Marriott and Courtyards (Knowles et al. 2001).
Further instances on niche consumption include Mediterranean tourism, focusing on old age pensioners who want long stay holidays, the Carrabin pleasure market targeting gay community and extensive well equipped camper sites in North America have boomed by youth consumers (Faulkner et al. 2001). Thomson Holiday operates multiple of packages and accommodation provisions in paramount scale to suit diverse consumers. Trailfinder serves customers to meet their ‘pick and mix’ demand on destinations and hotels worldwide (Walsh 2006). In many countries, including America and Canada, the indigenous population have opened up their cultural heritage celebrations to tourists significantly initiating the expansion of the regional festival schedules and relevant tourism options (Arnold 1996 cited by Faulkner et al. 2001). Hence the operation and success of the diverse product-consumption pattern draws sturdy evidence to suggest that niche consumption has been more dominant in recent hospitality businesses.
To draw a conclusion, the essay in the first half has portrayed the commencement of post-war affluence among world population characterised by Fordism and Modernity where mechanisation and rational management of labour occurred vitalising the mass production-consumption theory. And as capitalism developed further, the global integrity of economy and culture became inevitable. Further to this, the economic crisis of early 1970s caused the cheaper global availability of labour given better mobility across nations, due also to, advancing technology leading to globalisation. Consequently, countries having sought for global production and markets for global consumption of hospitality industry conceptualised MNCs, TNCs and branding, inducing thereby, cultural homogenisation further backed by Americanisation and McDonaldisation.
On the other hand the second half, however, contradictorily elaborates ‘knowledge age’ in the face of post-modernism and growing hybridisation out of globalisation, characterised by individualism, cultural identity and distinctive ethnicity. This phenomenon thereby, has acutely heightened the cultural heterogeneity, prompting hospitality industry to adapt to niche consumption periphery.
Overall the evidences such as hybridisation, search for authenticity and demand for a vast niche production-consumption pattern, are strong enough to suggest that cultural heterogeneity has become more dominant in the world. Hence, to this very effect, it will not be exaggerated to claim that any process of cultural fragmentation, rather than that of cultural homogenisation, more significantly contributes towards the development of global tourism and hospitality industry.
(The author is currently involved at Teaching in further education sector in UK)
